Testosterone can bolster either dominance or reciprocity.
Like many hormones, testosterone functions differently depending on social circumstances. A September 2013 study found that in the presence of competition
and a need for dominance, testosterone fuels stingy and antisocial
behavior. However, in the absence of threat or competition testosterone
creates fierce protectiveness, generosity and prosocial behavior. This makes sense in terms of our evolutionary psychology.
In recent years, there has been an onslaught of advertisements trying to convince men to take hormone replacement therapy to treat low levels of testosterone, or “low T.” The ads will ask things like: “Are you suffering from any of the following: depression, low energy, weight gain, fatigue, low sex drive?”
“Those
symptoms are true of everybody as they age, to a greater or lesser
extent,” says Glenn Braunstein, an endocrinologist and vice president of
clinical innovation at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles. He says, "Low T is the latest trend in direct-to-consumer advertising,
promoting such products as AndroGel, Testim and Axiron that deliver the
male sex hormone through the skin — a more convenient and less painful
option than the injections that have been available for decades."
symptoms are true of everybody as they age, to a greater or lesser
extent,” says Glenn Braunstein, an endocrinologist and vice president of
clinical innovation at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles. He says, "Low T is the latest trend in direct-to-consumer advertising,
promoting such products as AndroGel, Testim and Axiron that deliver the
male sex hormone through the skin — a more convenient and less painful
option than the injections that have been available for decades."
False
advertising may suggest that testosterone can alleviate depression,
improve mood, boost sexual performance, increase energy, help you lose
weight... Although these conditions can all be symptoms of too little
testosterone — they can also be treated by a wide range of healthier lifestyle choices. Hormone experts say that using testosterone as a quick fix for aging
may be misguided and in some cases unsafe. Any type of hormone
replacement therapy is going to have potentially dangerous side effects.
advertising may suggest that testosterone can alleviate depression,
improve mood, boost sexual performance, increase energy, help you lose
weight... Although these conditions can all be symptoms of too little
testosterone — they can also be treated by a wide range of healthier lifestyle choices. Hormone experts say that using testosterone as a quick fix for aging
may be misguided and in some cases unsafe. Any type of hormone
replacement therapy is going to have potentially dangerous side effects.
Testosterone’s Dual-Edged Sword
In a paper titled, “Testosterone Inhibits Trust but Promotes Reciprocity” researchers at the Rotterdam School of Management
report that testosterone is implicated in behaviors that help to foster
and maintain social relationships, indicating that its effects are more
nuanced than previously thought. The findings were published in Psychological Science, a journal of the Association for Psychological Science.
report that testosterone is implicated in behaviors that help to foster
and maintain social relationships, indicating that its effects are more
nuanced than previously thought. The findings were published in Psychological Science, a journal of the Association for Psychological Science.
Animal
studies have shown that testosterone plays a role in dominant social
behavior. In humans, previous studies have linked testosterone to
dominance and competitive success in mating when men battle one another
for a sexual partner. Interestingly, once the competition for a mate is
secure, testosterone seems to flip and boost a fierce need to
"tend-and-befriend," much like oxytocin.
Instudies have shown that testosterone plays a role in dominant social
behavior. In humans, previous studies have linked testosterone to
dominance and competitive success in mating when men battle one another
for a sexual partner. Interestingly, once the competition for a mate is
secure, testosterone seems to flip and boost a fierce need to
"tend-and-befriend," much like oxytocin.
terms of the evolutionary role of a dominant male in a group, Boksem
and colleagues reasoned that testosterone in humans would also increase a
drive for social status. If you imagine an alpha male in a group of
hunters and gatherers, one would expect the leadership role and
maintenance of high social status to include both fighting off
competition and protecting the group. The same would be true for any
person in a corporate management position or family.
"Testosterone
may mediate competitive and potentially antisocial behavior when social
challenges or threats need to be confronted and handled," explains lead
researcher Maarten Boksem of Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus
University (RSM) in the Netherlands. "But it can also induce prosocial
behavior in the absence of these threats, when high status and good
reputation are best served by positive behavior. But we doubted that
this drive would automatically result in aggressive and antisocial behaviors,"
says Boksem. "We hypothesized that testosterone could perhaps also lead
to prosocial behavior if such behavior would be beneficial for
maintaining or obtaining social status."
may mediate competitive and potentially antisocial behavior when social
challenges or threats need to be confronted and handled," explains lead
researcher Maarten Boksem of Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus
University (RSM) in the Netherlands. "But it can also induce prosocial
behavior in the absence of these threats, when high status and good
reputation are best served by positive behavior. But we doubted that
this drive would automatically result in aggressive and antisocial behaviors,"
says Boksem. "We hypothesized that testosterone could perhaps also lead
to prosocial behavior if such behavior would be beneficial for
maintaining or obtaining social status."
To test this
hypothesis, the researchers had 54 female volunteers ingest a liquid
solution several hours before participating in an investing game. Some
volunteers were given a placebo solution while others received a solution with testosterone.
hypothesis, the researchers had 54 female volunteers ingest a liquid
solution several hours before participating in an investing game. Some
volunteers were given a placebo solution while others received a solution with testosterone.
In
the investing game, participants were given about $30 and were
instructed that they could keep the amount they wanted and invest
whatever remained with a trustee (another participant). The invested
portion would be tripled and split by the trustee, who would keep
whatever portion she wanted and return the rest to the investor.
the investing game, participants were given about $30 and were
instructed that they could keep the amount they wanted and invest
whatever remained with a trustee (another participant). The invested
portion would be tripled and split by the trustee, who would keep
whatever portion she wanted and return the rest to the investor.
If
participants were completely trusting, they could invest all $30 and
hope that the trustee would split the final $90 equally. If they wanted
to play it safe, they could keep the $30 for themselves. Each
participant took turns playing both investor and trustee. When they were
the trustee, they were always given $90, indicating that the investor
had entrusted them with the task of splitting up the whole sum.
participants were completely trusting, they could invest all $30 and
hope that the trustee would split the final $90 equally. If they wanted
to play it safe, they could keep the $30 for themselves. Each
participant took turns playing both investor and trustee. When they were
the trustee, they were always given $90, indicating that the investor
had entrusted them with the task of splitting up the whole sum.
As
investors, participants who received testosterone were, on average,
stingier—they placed less trust in the trustee and kept more of their
initial money. Participants who received the placebo, on the other hand,
were more trusting investors, choosing to invest about $5 more than
those who received testosterone.
investors, participants who received testosterone were, on average,
stingier—they placed less trust in the trustee and kept more of their
initial money. Participants who received the placebo, on the other hand,
were more trusting investors, choosing to invest about $5 more than
those who received testosterone.
Just as the researchers
predicted, testosterone seemed to promote antisocial behavior in
response to a potential threat—in this case, a threat to financial
resources. But the opposite effect emerged when participants played the
role of trustee. In this case, participants given testosterone chose to
give more money back to the investor than participants who had been
given a placebo. The results suggest that the trustees felt a
responsibility to literally repay the trust that the investor had placed
in them.
predicted, testosterone seemed to promote antisocial behavior in
response to a potential threat—in this case, a threat to financial
resources. But the opposite effect emerged when participants played the
role of trustee. In this case, participants given testosterone chose to
give more money back to the investor than participants who had been
given a placebo. The results suggest that the trustees felt a
responsibility to literally repay the trust that the investor had placed
in them.
Testosterone and the Mating Game
According
to Richard Slatcher, Ph.D., assistant professor of psychology in Wayne
State University's College of Liberal Arts and Sciences the effects of
testosterone on dominance behaviors were especially pronounced among men
who reported having a high need for social dominance.
to Richard Slatcher, Ph.D., assistant professor of psychology in Wayne
State University's College of Liberal Arts and Sciences the effects of
testosterone on dominance behaviors were especially pronounced among men
who reported having a high need for social dominance.
In a 2011 study, "Testosterone and Self-Reported Dominance Interact to Influence Human Mating Behavior," published in the journal, Social Psychological and Personality Science,
these men showed a strong positive association between their own
testosterone and their own dominance behaviors and, most surprisingly, a
strong negative association between their own testosterone and their
opponents' dominance behaviors.
these men showed a strong positive association between their own
testosterone and their own dominance behaviors and, most surprisingly, a
strong negative association between their own testosterone and their
opponents' dominance behaviors.
those who reported a high need for social dominance appeared able to
beat out their competitors' ability to attract potential mates. However,
when men reported a low need for social dominance, they were still able
to attract women and there was zero association between testosterone
and successful mating behavior.
"We found that
testosterone levels influenced men's dominance behaviors during the
competitions, how much they derogated (or 'bashed') their competitors
afterward, and how much the woman said she 'clicked' with them," said
Slatcher. He concludes, “These findings highlight an important
difference between humans and animals. In humans-unlike
animals-explicit, conscious motives can affect how a hormone such as
testosterone shapes behavior."
testosterone levels influenced men's dominance behaviors during the
competitions, how much they derogated (or 'bashed') their competitors
afterward, and how much the woman said she 'clicked' with them," said
Slatcher. He concludes, “These findings highlight an important
difference between humans and animals. In humans-unlike
animals-explicit, conscious motives can affect how a hormone such as
testosterone shapes behavior."
"Books, film and
television often portray men who are bold and self-assured with women as
being high in testosterone," Slatcher says. "Our results suggest that
there is a kernel of truth to this stereotype, that naturally circulating testosterone indeed is associated with men's behaviors when they try to woo women."
television often portray men who are bold and self-assured with women as
being high in testosterone," Slatcher says. "Our results suggest that
there is a kernel of truth to this stereotype, that naturally circulating testosterone indeed is associated with men's behaviors when they try to woo women."
Conclusion: Testosterone magnifies both prosocial and antisocial behavior.
"While
we expected the decrease in trust, the increase in reciprocity was
surprisingly strong and robust," Boksem concluded. "Testosterone had a
more pronounced effect on prosocial behavior than on antisocial
behavior."
we expected the decrease in trust, the increase in reciprocity was
surprisingly strong and robust," Boksem concluded. "Testosterone had a
more pronounced effect on prosocial behavior than on antisocial
behavior."
“The fact that testosterone can promote
prosocial behavior, at least in certain contexts, provides a more
nuanced account than the traditional view of testosterone as being
involved in purely aggressive and antisocial behavior,” says Boksem. The
researchers hope to run a similar study in men and they are currently
investigating additional types of social behavior under various
conditions of social threat.
prosocial behavior, at least in certain contexts, provides a more
nuanced account than the traditional view of testosterone as being
involved in purely aggressive and antisocial behavior,” says Boksem. The
researchers hope to run a similar study in men and they are currently
investigating additional types of social behavior under various
conditions of social threat.
